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Titus 1:5 - Appoint (katastesne) elders (presbuterous)
Titus 2:2-3a - Older women (presbutidas)
Titus 2:3b - Like priestesses (hieroprepeis)
Titus 2:3c - Teaching what is good (kalodidaskalous)
Titus 2:4-5a - Encourage the young women to love their husbands and children
Titus 2:5b - That the word of God may not be dishonored

Bible Text

Titus 1
5 - For this reason I [Paul] left you [Titus] in Crete, that you might set in order what remains, and appoint (katastesne) elders (presbuterous) in every city as I directed you.

Titus 2:
2 - Older men (presbutas) are to be temperate, dignified, sensible, sound in faith, in love, in perseverance.
3 - Older women (presbutidas) likewise are to be reverent (hieroprepeis=like priestesses) in their behavior, not malicious gossips, nor enslaved to much wine, teaching (kalodidaskalous) what is good,
4 - that they may encourage the young women to love their husbands, to love their children,
5 - to be sensible, pure, workers at home, kind, being subject to their own husbands, that the word of God may not be dishonored.

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Titus 1:5
5 - For this reason I [Paul] left you [Titus] in Crete, that you might set in order what remains, and appoint (katastesne) elders (presbuterous) in every city as I directed you.

Appoint (Katastasis) is explained by Cooper and Maclean. The Testament of Our Lord is translated from the Siriac.

The Syriac word of "appointed" has no reference to the imposition of hands. It is often used of ordination of clergy, but also of any appointment or election, e.g. of an emperor. It seems to refer to the whole action from election to ordination inclusive. The corresponding word in Greek, which is probably here underlying the Syriac, namely, katastasis, is the most common word for ordination as a complete act.
[The Testament of Our Lord, James Cooper and Arthur John Maclean, translators. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1902) 153.]

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Titus 2:2-3a
2 - Older men (presbutas) are to be temperate, dignified, sensible, sound in faith, in love, in preserverance.
3a - Older women (presbutidas)

"The Pastor of Hermas," was one of the most popular books, if not the most popular book, in the Christian church during the second, third and fourth centuries.
[Hermas, Introductory note on "The Pastor of Hermas," The Ante-­Nicene Fathers," Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, editors. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950, Vol. II, 6.]

The old woman who instructed Hermas was called presbutis.
[Catherine Kroeger, Christian History, Vol. VII, No. 1, Issue 17, 11.]

And there came up an old woman (presbytis), arrayed in a splendid robe, and with a book in her hand.
[Hermas, "The Pastor of Hermas," The Ante-­Nicene Fathers, Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, editors. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950) Vol. II, Book First, Vision First, Chap. II, 10.]

Canon 11: Presbytides, as they are called, or female presidents (prokathehmenai), are not to be appointed (kathistasthai) in the church.
[Council of Laodicea, 343-381 C.E., A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, editors. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952) Second Series, Vol. XIV, 129, 153.]

WIDOWS WHO SIT IN FRONT. Cf. I. 19, 41, 43, II. 4, 8, etc. [Note CGP: I is Testament and II is "Second Book of Clement.] The Greek was no doubt prokathehmenai. That this was a recognised technical expression is seen by I. 19, where we read "widows who are called prokathehmenai." We notice that in Test. there are no other widows, as an order, than these "who sit in front."
[The Testament of Our Lord, James Cooper and Arthur John Maclean, translators. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1902) 198.]

I. 19. I tell you therefore how the sanctuary ought to be; ... Let the house of the bishop be beside that place which is called the fore-court. Also that of those widows who are called "those that sit in front." Also let that of the presbyters and deacons be behind the baptistery. Let the deaconesses abide beside the door of the Lord's house. Let the Church have a house for entertaining near by, where the chief deacon shall entertain strangers.
[The Testament of Our Lord, James Cooper and Arthur John Maclean, translators. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1902) 62-64.]

Now it should be observed that church order required only deaconesses; it also included the name "widows," of whom the older were called "eldresses" (presbytidas), but were never assigned the rank of "presbyteresses" (presbyteridas) or "priestesses" (hierissas).
[Epiphanius of Salamis, The Panarion of St. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, Selected Passages, Philip R. Amidon, translator. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990) 353.]

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Titus 2:3b
3b - likewise are to be reverent (hieroprepes) in their behavior, not malicious gossips, nor enslaved to much wine,

Hieroprepes is formed from two Greek words: hieros meaning holy and prepo meaning "be fitting, be seemly or suitable." Young says hieroprepes means:

Proper to priests.
[Robert Young, Analytical Concordance to the Bible, Twenty-­Second American Edition Revised. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, n.d., 487.]

Befitting holy persons or things, holy, worthy of reverence, of the conduct of the older women of the congregation Titus 2:3. The more specialized meaning: like a priest(ess) resulting from the use of the word in describing the conduct of a priest.
[Walter Bauer and others, A Greek ­English Lexicon of the New Testament. (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1957, 1979) Second Edition, 372.]

We should be aware that the New Testament Greek lexicons do not give us absolute certainty as to the meaning of words:

And to warn those of us who have relied solely on the lexicons of the New Testament Greek against using them as the final reference for the meanings of New Testament words. Those of us who must reley on English translations may be exhorted to watch for further evidence that translators of the New Testament have not been fully sensitive to the ways their cultures have encouraged them to give their versions a decidedly male bias. In most cases the New Testament lexicons are merely collections of the various English translations that have already been used for a particular Greek term. They are not reference books for extensive information about the exact meanings which first-century Greek speakers intended, directly or metaphorically, when they used a specific word, such as "slave" or "head." In too many cases, as we have seen, past and current English versions of the New Testament reflect the male chauvinism of trnaslators, particularly of those verses which are critical for helping us to do battle with our culture about what it means to be a "normal" human being, either male or female.
[S. Scott Bartchy, "Power, Submission, and Sexual Identity Among the Early Christians," in Essays on New Testament Christianity C. Robert Wetzel, editor. (Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, 1978), 50.]

But if in the foregoing constitutions we have not permitted them to teach, how will anyone allow them, contrary to nature, to perform the office of a priest? For this is one of the ignorant practices of the Gentile atheism, to ordain women priests to the female dieties, not one of the constitutions of Christ.
[“The Constitutions of the Holy Apostles,” The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, editors. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950) Vol. VII, Book III, Section I, Paragraph IX, 429, also found in Didascalia Apostolorum, R. Hugh Connolly, translator. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1929) Chap. XV, 142.]

Let the priests (hiereus) first receive, thus: the bishops, presbyters, deacons, widows, readers, subdeacons. After these those that have gifts, those newly baptized, babes. The people thus: old men, virgins, and the rest. The women [thus]: deaconesses, and after that the rest.
[The Testament of Our Lord, James Cooper and Arthur John Maclean, translators. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1902) p. 76.]

It may be remarked here that there are two Syriac words equivalent respectively to hiereus, sacerdos, and presbuteros, presbyter, the former denoting office and duty, the latter denoting rank, and usually confined to the second order. In this translation "priest" renders the former, and "presbyter" the latter.
[The Testament of Our Lord, James Cooper and Arthur John Maclean, translators. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1902, 177-178.]

To counterbalance the heavy acusation that widows ram around among the houses and only wanted to receive, we should remember what we have already studied about the distribution of the food. The widows received 1 portion and the bishop 4 portions. The widows did not participate in the leftovers of the Lord's Supper, which was a meal, nor of the first fruits.

A widow must not therefore stray or run about among the houses. For those who are gadabouts and without shame cannot be still even in their houses; for they are no widows, but "wallets," and they care for nothing else but to be making ready to receive.

And because they are gossips and chatterers and murmurers, they stir up quarrels; and they are bold and shameless. ... Now such a widow does not conform to the altar of Christ.

Now we see that there are widows who esteem the matter as one of traffic, and receive greedily; and instead of doing good (works) and giving to the bishop for the entertainment of strangers and the refreshment of those in distress, they lend out on bitter usury; and they care only for Mammon, whose god is the purse and their belly; for where their treasure is, there is also their heart.
[The Didascalia Apostolorum, R. Hugh Connolly, translator. (Oxford, England: Clarendon, 1929) 133-134, 136.), also found in "The Constitutions of the Holy Apostles," The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, translators. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1951) Vol. VII, Chap. XV, Book III, Section I, Paragraph V, 428a.]

Statute 17. Concerning the Widow. Said Kefas: Three widows shall be ordained. Two of them shall devote themselves to prayer for all those who are in affliction; and sufficient daily sustenance shall be given. But one of them shall stay with the women who are suffering from illness, that she may further their recovery, and be watchful, and inform by sending word to the presbyters. And she shall not be a lover of gain, nor shall she be a drunkard, lest she leave off her work of watchfulness and praying in the night. And if one (of them) wishes to do a good work, let her do it according to the commandment, that she may comfort the heart of the sorrowful, because the goodness of God has been first made known (to her).
[The Statutes of the Apostles, G. Horner, translator. (London: Oxford, 1915) 136, also 242, 304.]

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Titus 2:3c
3c - teaching what is good (kalodidaskalous),

Tertullian, Carthage, North Africa, 145-220 C.E. was incensed against Quintilla who was teaching and baptizing, and so he attacked The Acts of Paul [and Thecla] so as to destroy any authority it might give for a woman to teach and baptize.

But if the writing which wrongly goes under Paul's name, claim Thecla's example as a licence for women's teaching and baptizing, let them know that, in Asia, the presbyter who composed that writing, as if he were augmenting Paul's fame from his own store, after being convicted and confessing that he had done it from love of Paul, was removed from his office. For how credible would it seem, that he who has not permitted a woman even to learn with over boldness, should give a female the power of teaching and of baptizing! “Let them be silent,” he says, “and at home consult their own husbands.”
[Tertullian, "On Baptism," The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, editors. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950) Vol. III, 677.]

But Tertullian undoubtedly was wrong in claiming that the author concocted these stories from his own fantasies, for several of them clearly are traditional and probably extend back into the first century. The people whom Tertullian opposed did not learn the story of Thecla from reading the Acts of Paul; rather, they simply were repeating an ancient Christian legend which the author of the Acts of Paul likewise knew and incorporated into his book along with other legends.
[Dennis Ronald MacDonald, The Legend and the Apostle (Philadllphia: Westminster, 1983) 17-18.]

There is, however, no reason to assume that Tertullian was very well informed about the affairs of individual churches in Asia, especially since the document he happily reports to have been condemned with the resultant humiliation of its author seems to have enjoyed great favor in the eastern churches after this time. Tertullian is notorious for his willingness to manipulate fact in the interest of rhetorical flourish. Further, the Acts of Paul in the Thecla sequence (against which Tertullian is arguing) does little to add to Paul's reputation although Tertullian says that this was their supposed purpose.
[Stevan L. Davies, The Revolt of the Widows. (Carbondale and Edwardsville IL: Southern Illinois University, 1980) 108.]

40. But Thecla yearned for Paul and sought after him, sending in every direction. And it was reported to her that he was in Myra. So she took young men and maidservants and girded herself, and sewed her mantle into a cloak after the fashion of men and went off to Myra, and found Paul speaking the word of God ... She said to him: “I have taken the bath, Paul; for he who worked with thee for the Gospel has also worked with me for my baptism.” ... And Thecla arose and said to Paul: I am going to Iconium.” But Paul said: “Go and teach the word of God!” ... And when she had borne this witness she went away to Seleucia; and after enlightening many with the word of God she slept with a noble sleep.
[“The Acts of Paul [and Thecla],” New Testament Apocrypha, Edgar Hennecke and Wilhelm Schneemelcher, editors. (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1964) Vol. II, 364.]

For when the Gentiles who are being instructed hear the word of God not fittingly spoken, as it ought to be, unto edification of eternal life -- and all the more in that it is spoken to them by a woman -- how that our Lord clothed Himself in a body, and concerning the passion of Christ; they will mock and scoff, instead of applauding the word of doctrine; and she shall incur a heavy judgement for sin.
[The Didascalia Apostolorum, R. Hugh Connolly, translator. (Oxford, England: Clarendon, 1929) 133, this paragraph is not found in "The Constitutions of the Holy Apostles," The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, editors. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1951) Vol. VII, Chap. XV, Book III, Section I, Paragraph V, 427.]

Mary carried this divine body inside her own human body.

And behold, you will conceive in your womb, and bear a son, and you shall name Him Jesus. (Luke 1:31)

The Holy Spirit will come upon you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you; and for that reason the holy offspring shall be called the Son of God. (Luke 1:35)

And it came about that while they were there, the days were completed for her to give birth. And she gave birth to her first-born son; and she wrapped him in cloths, and laid Him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn. (Luke 2:6-7)

But there were standing by the cross of Jesus His mother, and His mother's sister, Mary the wife of Clopas, and Mary Magdalene. (John 19:25, see also Matthew 27:55-56, Mark 15:40-41, and Luke 23:49).

Now the women who had come with Him out of Galilee followed after, and saw the tomb and how His body was laid. (Luke 23:55, see also Matthew 27:61 and Mark 15:47).

And when the Sabbath was over, Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and Salome, bought spices, that they might come and anoint Him. And very early on the first day of the week, they came to the tomb when the sun had risen. (Mark 16:1-2, also see Matthew 28:1, Luke 24:1 and John 20:1).

But go, tell His disciples and Peter. (Mark 16:7, see also Matthew 28:7).

Go and take word to My brethren. (Matthew 28:10b, see also John 20:17).

If it had not been for the testimony of women, we wouldn't even know about these happenings. However, writing was considered an extension of speaking for women and men took the testimony of women right from their lips and wrote it down as men's stories. As they got farther and farther from the powerful influence of Jesus, the early church moved from the exercise of gifts of the Holy Spirit to the exercise of power and position. Women were severly repressed.

I remember how shocked I was in seminary class when a professor tentatively suggested that the writers of the Gospels "may" have gotten some of their material from women. It seemed clear to me that this had happened. I also remember how profoundly I was shaken at a play on the resurrection put on by the Woman's Missionary Union of the Southern Baptist Convention at the assembly grounds in Glorietta, New Mexico, in which a man in the play had a line something like: "Mary Magdalene said she had seen the Lord." How weak it was, how without emotional impact, when moved from the lips of a woman who was an eye witness to those of a man who learned it second hand. The greatest message the world has ever known fell limply into the audience.

The early church manual, The Didascalia Apostolorum, Syria or Palestine, 200-249 C.E. challenges the widow's teaching ministry in a way that goes directly against the biblical teaching, it depreciates the word of women, and turns the beautiful symbol altar of God against the teaching ministry of the women pastors (elders) called widows.

It is neither right nor necessary therefore that women should be teachers, and especially concerning the name of Christ and the redemption of His passion. For you have not been appointed to this, O women, and especially widows, that you should teach, but that you should pray and entreat the Lord God. For He the Lord God, Jesus Christ our Teacher, sent us the Twelve to instruct the People and the Gentiles; and there were with us women disciples, Mary Magdalene and Mary the daughter of James and the other Mary; but He did not send them to instruct the people with us. For if it were required that women should teach, our Master Himself would have commanded these to give instruction with us. But let a widow know that she is the altar of God; and let her sit ever at home and not stray or run about among the houses of the faithful to receive. For the altar of God never strays or runs about anywhere, but is fixed in one place.
[The Didascalia Apostolorum, R. Hugh Connolly, translator. Oxford, England: Clarendon, 1929, chap. XV, 133, also found in "Constitutions of the Holy Apostles," in The Ante-Nicene Fathers, Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, editors. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1951, Vol. VII, Book III, Section I, Paragraph VI, 427-428.]

We should base all of our beliefs about teaching by women on the teachings of Christ and reconcile the two passages used against women teaching, I Cor. 14:34-35 and I Tim. 2:8-15, to these. Jesus and angels knew exactly what the Jewish law about women was; even so they gave women the task of going and teaching the disciples and Peter! In prohibiting the teaching ministry of women, the early church went contrary to the command of God through angels, the command of Jesus, the gifts of the Holy Spirit, the example of Priscilla, and the teaching of Titus 2:3-5 that we are studying.

• Matthew 28:7
  (An angel from God said to Mary Magdalene and the other Mary) “Go quickly and tell His disciples that He has risen from the dead.”

• Matthew 28:10
  Then Jesus said to them (Mary Magdalene and the other Mary), “Do not be afraid; go and take word to My brethren."

• Mark 16:7
  (An angel from God said to Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and Salome) “But go, tell His disciples and Peter."

• John 20:17
  Jesus said to her (Mary Magdalene), “ ... But go to My brethren, and say to them 'I ascend to My Father and your Father, and My God and your God.'”

• Romans 12:6-7
  And since we have gifts that differ according to the grace given to us, let each exercise them accordingly: ... or he who teaches, in his teaching.

• I Corinthians 12:1,7,8,11,28,31
  (1) Now concerning spiritual gifts, brethren, I do not want you to be unaware ...
  (7) But to each one is given the manifestation of the Spirit for the common good.
  (8) For to one is given the word of wisdom through the Spirit, and to another the word of knowledge according to the same Spirit. ...
  (11) But one and the same Spirit works all these things, distributing to each one individually just as He wills. ...
  (28) And God has appointed in the church, first apostles, second prophets, third teachers. ...
  (31) But earnestly desire the greater gifts.

• Ephesians 4:7,11,12
  (7) But to each one of us grace was given according to the measure of Christ's gift. ...
  (11) And He gave some as ... teachers,
  (12) for the equipping of the saints for the work of service (diakonias), to the building up of the body of Christ.

• I Peter 4:10-11
  (10) As each one has received a special gift, employ it in serving one another, as good stewards of the manifold grace of God.
  (11) Whoever speaks, let him speak, as it were the utterances of God ... so that in all things God may be glorified through Jesus Christ.

• Acts 18:24-26
  (24) Now a certain Jew named Apollos, an Alexandrian by birth, an eloquent man, came to Ephesus; and he was mighty in the Scriptures.
  (25) This man had been instructed in the way of the Lord; and being fervent in spirit, he was speaking and teaching accurately the things concerning Jesus, being acquainted only with the baptism of John;
  (26) and he began to speak out boldly in the synagogue. But when Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they took him aside and explained to him the way of God more accurately.

• Titus 2:3-5
  (3) Older women (presbutidas), likewise, are to be reverent (hieroprepeis)in their behavior, not malicious gossips, not enslaved to much wine, teaching what is good (kalodidaskalous),
  (4) that they may encourage the young women to love their husbands, to love their children,
  (5) to be sensible, pure, workers at home, kind, being subject to their own husbands, that the word of God may not be dishonored.

And when she who is being baptized has come up from the water, let the deaconess receive her, and teach and instruct her how the seal of baptism ought to be (kept) unbroken in purity and holiness. For this cause we say that the ministry of a woman deacon is especially needful and important. For our Lord and Saviour also was ministered unto by women ministers, Mary Magdalene, and Mary the daughter of James and mother of Jose, and the mother of the sons of Zebedee, with other women beside. And thou also hast need of the ministry of a deaconess for many things; for a deaconess is required to go into the houses of the heathen where there are believing women, and to visit those who are sick, and to minister to them in that of which they have need, and to bathe those who have begun to recover from sickness.
[Didascalia Apostolorum, R. Hugh Connolly, translator. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1929) Chap. XVI, 147-148 also found in "Constitutions of the Holy Apostles," in The Ante-Nicene Fathers," Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, editors. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1950) Vol. VII, Book III, Section II, Paragraphs XVI, 431.]

You shall not add to the word which I am commanding you, nor take away from it, that you may keep the commandments of the Lord your God which I command you. (Deut. 4:2) and Whatever I command you, you shall be careful to do; you shall not add to nor take away from it. (Deut. 12:32)

Although all speak and are allowed to speak when they are granted a revelation, "the women," he says, "should keep silence in the churches." (I Cor. 14:34) They in no way fulfill this command, those disciples of women, who chose as their master Priscilla and Maximilla, not Christ the Spouse of the Bride. (Rev. 21:2) But, let us be good-natured players, and cope with the arguments which they judge convincing. The Evangelist Philip, they say, had four daughters, and all prophesied. (Acts 21;9) If they prophesied, what is strange, they ask, if our own prophetesses -- as they are called -- also prophesy? Let us then resolve this difficulty. First, since you say: "Our women prophesied," show in them the signs of prophesy. Second, if the daughters of Philip prophesied, at least they did not speak in the assemblies; for we do not find this fact in the Acts of the Apostles. Much less in the Old Testament. It is said that Deborah was a prophetess (Judges 4:4). Mary, the sister of Aaron, tambourine in hand, led the choir of women (Exodus 15:20-21). There is no evidence that Deborah delivered speeches to the people, as did Jeremias and Isaias. Hulda, who was a prophetess, did not speak to people, but only to a man, who consulted her at home. (2 Kings 22:14-20) The Gospel itself mentiones a prophetess, Anna, the daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Aser; (Luke 2:36) but she did not speak publicly. Even if it is granted to a woman to prophesy and show the sign of prophecy, she is nevertheless not permitted to speak in an assembly. When Mary, the prophetess, spoke, she was leading a choir of women. For: "It is improper for a woman to raise her voice at meetings," (I Cor. 14:35) and: "I am not giving permission for a woman to teach" and even less "to tell a man what to do." (1 Timothy 2:12) Although those given above say more categorically that a woman does not have the right by her word to guide a man, I shall further prove this position from another text. "Bid the old women to behave themselves as befits holy women, teaching what is good, in order to form young women in wisdom," and not simply ""Let them teach." (Titus 2:3-4) Certainly, women should also "teach what is good," but men should not sit and listen to a women, as if there were no men capable of communicating the word of God. "If they have any question to ask, they should ask their husbands at home: it does not seem right for a woman to raise her voice at meetings." (I Corinthians 14:35) It seems to me that the expression "their husbands" does not refer only to husbands; for if that were the case, either virgins would speak in the assembly, or they would have nobody to teach them, and the same is true for widows. But could "their husbands" not also mean a brother, a relative, or a son? In short, let a woman learn from the man who is her own, taking "man" in its generic sense, as the counterpart of "woman." "For it is improper for a woman to speak in an assembly," no matter what she says, even if she says admirable things, or even saintly things, that is of little consequence, since they come from the mouth of a woman. "A woman in an assembly": clearly this abuse is denounced as improper -- an abuse for which the entire assembly is responsible.
[Origen, "Fragments on First Corinthians," 74 (JTS 10, 40-42), cited in Roger Gryson, The Ministry of Women (Collegeville: Liturgical, 1976) 28-29.]

Origen says that the four daughters of Philip "did not speak in assemblies; for we do not find this fact in the Acts of the Apostles." One of the principles of biblical interpretation is that you cannot argue from silence. This means that we cannot argue that the four daughters of Philip did not speak in assemblies because the New Testament does not speak of it. However, Eusebius (260-340 C.E.), the first church historian whose work has come down to us, explains the manner in which they preached. In fact Eusebius mentions four men and five women New Testament preachers. He also chides the followers of Montanus for not having any more women preachers.

After stating other matters, he enumerates those who had prophesied under the New Testament. Among these he mentions one Ammias and Quadrantus. 'But the false prophet,' says he, 'is carried away by a vehement ecstasy, accompanied by want of all shame and fear. Beginning, indeed, with a designed ignorance, and terminating, as beforesaid in involuntary madness. They will never be able to show that any of the Old or any of the New Testament, were thus violently agitated and carried away in spirit. Neither will they be able to boast that Agabus, or Judas, or Silas, or the daughters of Philip, or Ammias in Philadelphia, or Quadratus, or others that do not belong to them, ever acted in this way.' Again, after a little, he says: 'If after Quadratus and Ammias in Philadelphia, the women that followed Montanus succeeded in the gift of prophecy, let them show us what women among them succeeded Montanus and his women. For the apostle shows that the gift of prophecy should be in all the church until the coming of the Lord, but they can by no means show any one at this time, the fourteenth year from the death of Maximilla.'
[Eusebius Pamphilus, The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus, Christian Frederick Cruse, translator. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981) 199.]

Down to the eighth century, the term "prophet" appears linked to the names of a considerable number of persons. Five prominent names from premonarchic times are associated by tradition with the title: Abraham (Gen. 20:7), Aaron (Exod. 7:1), Miriam and Deborah (both naviah; Exod. 15:20; Judg. 4:4), and Moses (Deut. 18:18; 34:10; cf. Num. 11:26-29; 12:5-8.)
[The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible. George Arthur Buttrick, dictionary editor, and others. Vol. K-Q. (New York, Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1962) 905.]

The Song of Deborah (Judg. 5:2-31), which celebrates her achievement, is one of the oldest examples of Hebrew literature still in existence. It is the one contemporary source of any length from this period (twelfth century B.C.) and is therefore of unparalleled importance for the study of early Hebrew literature, history, and religion. It is a magnificent poem, containing some of the same forms of poetic paralelism that are found in the ancient Canaanite texts from Ugarit (cf. Judg. 5:3-7; C. H. Gordon, Ugaritic Handbook [1947], Baal and Anat 51, V.94-97; 76, II.26-28). It shows the Hebrews still isolated in the hill country of Palestine, not yet united in any lasting tribal organization, and just now able to challenge Canaanite control of the fertile plains and trade routes (Judg. 5:6, 13-18). Itself a song of victory in war, it brings alive the ancient attitudes toward God, the war God of Israel, coming to fight against his enemies with storm and torrent (vss. 4, 20-21). Judg. 4:2-24 gives a later, prose account of these same events.
[The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible. George Arthur Buttrick, dictionary editor, and others. Vol. A-D. (New York, Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1962) 808-809.]

And Miriam the prophetess, Aaron's sister, took the timbrel in her hand, and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dancing. And Miriam answered them, "Sing unto the Lord, for He is highly exalted; The horse and his rider He has hurled into the sea." (Exodus 15:20-21)

(Miriam and Aaron also said:) "Has the Lord indeed spoken only through Moses? Has He not spoken through us as well? (Numbers 12:2)

(The Lord said:) "Indeed, I brought you up from the land of Egypt and ransomed you from the house of slavery. And I sent before you Moses, Aaron, and Miriam". (Micah 6:4)

(11) "And it came about when the king heard the words of the book of the law, that he tore his clothes.
(12) Then the king commanded Hilkiah the priest, Ahikam the son of Shaphan, Achbor the son of Micaiah, Shapahn the scribe, and Asiah the king's servant saying,
(13) Go, inquire of the Lord for me and the people and all Judah concerning the words of this book that has been found." (2 Kings 22:11-13a).

(22) So Hilkiah and those whom the king had told went to Huldah the prophetess, the wife of Shallum the son of Tokhath, the son of Hasrah, the keeper of the wardrobe (now she lived in Jerusalem in the Second Quarter); and they spoke to her regarding this.
(23) And she said to them, "Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel, Tell the man who sent you to Me,
(24) Thus says the Lord, 'Behold, I am bringing evil on this place and on its inhabitants, even all the curses written in the book which they have read in the presence of the king of Judah.
(25) Because they have forsaken Me and have burned incense to other gods, that they might provoke Me to anger with all the works of their hands, therefore My wrath will be poured out on this place, and it shall not be quenched.'
(26) But to the king of Judah who sent you to inquire of the Lord, thus you will say to him, 'Thus says the Lord God of Israel regarding the words which you have heard,
(27) Because your heart was tender and you humbled yourself before God, when you heard His words against this place and against its inhabitants and because you humbled yourself before Me, tore your clothes, and wept before Me, I truly have heard you,' declares the Lord.
(28) 'Behold, I will gather you to your fathers and you shall be gathered to your grave in peace, so your eyes shall not see all the evil which I will bring on this place and on its inhabitants.'" And they brought back word to the king. (2 Chronicals 34:22-28)

(36) And there was a prophetess, Anna, the daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Asher. She was advanced in years, having lived with a husband seven years after her marriage,
(37) and then as a widow to the age of eighty-four. And she never left the temple, serving night and day with fastings and prayers.
(38) And at that very moment she came up and began giving thanks to God, and continued to speak of Him to all those who were looking for the redemption of Jerusalem" (Luke 2:36-38).

Remember from Titus 1:5 above we discussed that appoint (katastasis) is the most common word for ordination as a complete act.

Let a widow be appointed (katastasis), being chosen ... Let her do the things which are made known to her with fear and earnestness. Let her instruct those women who do not obey; let her teach those (women) who have not learnt; let her convert those who are foolish; let her instruct them to be grave; let her prove the deaconesses; let her make those who enter to know of what sort and who they are; also let her instruct them that they abide. To those who hear let her patiently counsel those things which are proper. To those who are disobedient after three instructions let her not speak. Let her love those who desire to be in virginity or in purity; those who oppose themselves let her correct modestly and quietly. With every one let her be peaceful. Let her privately shut the mouth of those who talk much and idly; but if they do not hear, let her take with her an aged woman, or let her take (it) up to the hearing of the bishop ... Let her do no secular work. ... For those [women pastors (elders) called widows] who have ministered well shall be praised by the archangels.
[The Testament of Our Lord, James Cooper and Arthur John Maclean, translators. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1902) 105-107.)

II.4. ... Let every woman cover her head with her hair also. Let the women becomingly and decorously show their modesty in their adornment, and let them not be adorned with plaited hair or with [precious] stones, lest the young men who are in the church be caught, but with modesty and knowledge. But if not, let them be instructed by the widows who sit in front. But if they rebelliously resist, let the bishop reprove them.
[Clement, "Second Book of Clement" in The Testament of Our Lord, James Cooper and Arthur John Maclean, translators. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1902) 119-120.]

Marcella ... a Christian widow of a Roman family of nobility. She turned her palace into a place of retreat for Bible study, teaching, and Christian activities. She used her wealth and energies for benevolent work, ascetic practices, including prayer and teaching the Scriptures to other women of nobility in Rome. Jerome stayed in her palace three years, taught and translated Hebrew and Greek texts into Latin, for Pope Damasus had commissioned him to do a revision of the Latin gospels in 382. Jerome referred to Marcella's palace as an “Ecclesia Domestica,” or church of the household, for not only were Bible classes held there, but it was a house of meditation, prayer, and worship. It was here that Paula and her daughter decided to help Jerome in his translation work and where Fabiola was inspired to establish the first hospital in Rome. Many other projects resulted from the fellowship and seclusion of Marcella's palace. When Rome was besieged by the Goths in 410, Marcella was treated harshly, resulting in her death at age eighty-five.
[Mary L. Hammack, A Dictionary of Women in Church History (Chicago: Moody, 1984) 97.]

In those days no highborn lady at Rome had made profession of the monastic life, or had ventured -- so strange and ignominious and degrading did it then seem -- publicly to call herself a nun. It was from some priests of Alexandria, and from pope Athanasius, and subsequently from Peter, who, to escape the persecution of the Arian heretics, had all fled for refuge to Rome as the safest haven in which they could find communion -- it was from these that Marcella heard of the life of the blessed Antony, then still alive, and of the monasteries in the Thebaid founded by Pachomius, and of the discipline laid down for virgins and for widows. Nor was she ashamed to profess a life which she had thus learned to be pleasing to Christ ... The unbelieving reader may perhaps laugh at me for dwelling so long on the praises of mere women ... For we judge of people's virtue not by their sex but by their character, and hold those to be worthy of the highest glory who have renounced both rank and wealth. ... When the needs of the Church at length brought me to Rome in company with the reverend pontiffs, Paulinus and Epiphanius -- the first of whom ruled the church of the Syrian Antioch, while the second presided over that of Salamis in Cyprus, -- I in my modesty was for avoiding the eyes of highborn ladies, yet she pleaded so earnestly, “both in season and out of season” as the apostle says, that at last her perserverance overcame my reluctance. And, as in those days my name was held in some renown as that of a student of the scriptures, she never came to see me that she did not ask me some question concerning them, nor would she at once acquiesce in my explanations but on the contrary would dispute them; not, however, for argument's sake but to learn the answers to those objections which might, as she saw, be made to my statements. How much virtue and ability, how much holiness and purity I found in her I am afraid to say; both lest I may exceed the bounds of men's belief and lest I may increase your sorrow by reminding you of the blessings that you have lost. This much only will I say, that whatever in me was the fruit of long study and as such made by constant meditation a part of my nature, this she tasted, this she learned and made her own. Consequently after my departure from Rome, in case of a dispute arising as to the testimony of scripture on any subject, recourse was had to her to settle it. And so wise was she and so well did she understand what philosophers call to prepon, that is, "the becoming," in what she did, that when she answered questions she gave her own opinion not as her own but as from me or some one else, thus admitting that what she taught she had herself learned from others. For she knew that the apostle had said: “I suffer not a woman to teach,” and she would not seem to inflict a wrong upon the male sex many of whom (including priests) questioned her concerning obscure and doubtful points. ... In the suburbs you found for yourselves a monastic seclusion, and chose the country instead of the town because of its loneliness. For a long time you lived together, and as many ladies shaped their conduct by your examples, I had the joy of seeing Rome transformed into another Jerusalem. Monastic establishments for virgins became numerous, and of hermits there were countless numbers. In fact so many were the servants of God that monasticism which had before been a term of reproach became subsequently one of honour ... While Marcella was thus serving the Lord in holy tranquility, there arose in these provinces a tornado of heresy which threw everything into confusion ... It was then that the holy Marcella, who had long held back lest she should be thought to act from party motives, threw herself into the breach. Conscious that the faith of Rome -- once praised by an apostle -- was now in danger, and that this new heresy was drawing to itself not only priests and monks but also many of the laity besides imposing on the bishop who fancied others as guileless as he was himself, she publicly withstood its teachers choosing to please God rather than men ... She it was who originated the condemnation of the heretics. She it was who furnished witnesses first taught by them and then carried away by their heretical teaching. She it was who showed how large a number they had deceived and who brought up against them the impious books "On First Principles" (by Origen), books which were passing from hand to hand after being “improved” by the hand of the scorpion. She it was lastly who called on the heretics in letter after letter to appear in their own defence. They did not indeed venture to come, for they were so conscience-stricken that they let the case go against them by default rather than face their accusers and be convicted by them. This glorious victory originated with Marcella, she was the source and cause of this great blessing. ... Were I to say more, ill natured persons might fancy me, under pretext of commending a woman's virtues, to be giving vent to my own rancour ... Whilst these things were happening in Jebus (Jerusalem) a dreadful rumour came from the West. Rome had been besieged and its citizens had been forced to buy their lives with gold ... Meantime, as was natural in a scene of such confusion, one of the bloodstained victors found his way into Marcella's house ... When the soldiers entered she is said to have received them without any look of alarm; and when they asked her for gold she pointed to her coarse dress to shew them that she had no buried treasure. However they would not believe in her self-chosen poverty, but scourged her and beat her with cudgels ... She said that she was thankful too that the taking of the city had found her poor, not made her so ... After a few days she fell asleep in the Lord; but to the last her powers remained unimpaired.
[Jerome, “Letter CXXVII (127), to the Virgin Principia, a Memorial of Marcella,” A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, editors. (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1952) Second Series, Vol. VI, 253-258.]

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Titus 2:4-5a
4 - that they may encourage the young women to love their husbands, to love their children,
5a - to be sensible, pure, workers at home, kind, being subject to their own husbands,

All of the countries around the Mediterranean Sea and the islands were controlled by the Romans at the time of Jesus. Titus had been sent to Crete by Paul to appoint (katastesne) elders (presbuterous), and the passage that we are studying is about the men and women elders (presbutas/presbutidas) and about the duties of these women elders.

We need to look at Roman law in order to understand what it might entail to encourage the young women to love their husbands and to love their children and to be subject to their own husbands.

Jane F. Gardner in Women in Roman Law and Society gives us a legal understanding of the married woman. We will not deal with the many people in society who could not legally marry and whose children were therefore illegitimate.

With a few exceptions, all Roman women were for their entire lives subject to some degree of limitation on their capacity for independent legal action. Authority to act must either be obtained from, or was vested in, a man -- father, husband or guardian (tutor). Until the time of Augustus (44 BC-14 AD), the only exceptions were the six Vestal Virgins; after Augustus, freeborn women who had borne three children, or freedwomen who had borne four, and who were sui iuris ('independent', in the sense of being subject to the control neither of a father nor of a husband), were able to dispense with tutors. (p. 5)

A legitimate child was, from birth, subject to the control (potestas) of the father, either as filiusfamilias (son) or filiafamilias (daughter). The father (pater) was head of the familia, the basic Roman social and property-owning unit. The familia under his control consisted of his children, whether living with him or not; his sons' children, if any; his wife, if married with manus (see p. 11); and his slaves. The pater, therefore, could be the grandfather or even great-grandfather of some of the persons in his potestas. ... The familia, obviously, could include several nuclear families, living apart (those of the married sons) as well as daughters married and living in families belonging to other familiae. At the death of the pater, the children (and wife) ceased to be alieni iuris (subject to another's control) and became sui iuris (independent). Each adult son became a paterfamilias; no woman ever did. ... A woman's children, if legitimate, belonged to the familia of their father; if illegitimate, they were sui iuris. (pp. 5-6)

The powers of the pater were extensive, and they lasted over his sons and their children as long as he lived, and over his daughters likewise, unless they previously had passed into the manus of a husband. Some of these powers, originating in a very primitive stage of Roman society when protection of the group rested on self-help rather than the rule of law, had become in their extreme form rather an embarrasment by the classical period. This applies particularly to the power of life and death (ius vitae necisque) and the powers of sale or surrender. (p. 6)

It was the father's right to refuse to rear the newborn child, and the mother had no legal power to prevent this. Child exposure was practised, and was not made illegal until A.D. 374. ... The father had also the right, as mentioned in the Twelve Tables and in the formula of adoption by adrogatio, to punish his children up to and including the infliction of the death penalty. This was finally abolished in the reign of Valentinian (A.D. 364-375) and Valens (A.D. 364-378). The authority of the pater over his children remained almost intact throughout the classical period (199 BC-A.D. 299). (p. 6)

Women could have no direct legal heirs, in this sense, and could not found a familia. (p. 8)

Until the time of Marcus Aurelius (A.D. 161-180), a father could dissolve his children's marriages even against their will. ... The father's death terminated potestas. ... Both became sui iuris at his death, but whereas the adult son now became fully capable of independent legal action, including the right of testamentary disposition, and acquired the powers of a paterfamilias, a woman had no familia, or, rather, 'she is both the source and end of her own familia', since she has no potestas over her children. (p. 11)

Manus (literally 'hand') meant a relationship in which the wife stood in the power of the husband. She was regarded as being filiae loco, in the situation of a daughter, in relation to her husband. She had the same rights of intestate succession as her husband's children. His power over her, though, was more restricted than that over his children. He did not have the right of life and death over her, nor of noxal surrender or sale ... She could possess no property of her own; everything was vested in her husband or in the latter's father, while he lived, and anything accruing to her by gift or bequest or in any other way during the marriage was absorbed into her husband's property. (p. 11)

Certain conditions must have been fulfilled for a marriage to be legally valid (iustum matrimonium). Otherwise, a cohabiting couple were not married. The conditions were three: legal capacity -- conubium; age -- puberty; and consent of the relevant parties. (p. 31).

There was legal capacity if both parties were free and citizen. Slaves had no conubium. ... There was no conubium between Roman citizens and foreigners. (p. 31) ... Potestas existed only over children born of a iustum matrimonium, or, in other words, only such children could be admitted to an existing familia. (p. 32).

In Roman society, as we shall see, marriage dated not from the performance of a specific formal ceremony but from the wife's entre to the husband's home (p. 37).

A legal marriage existed only if both partners had reached puberty. For boys, it was still disputed in Gaius' time whether this should be determined by examination of physical development or simply fixed at the age of 14. ... For girls, puberty was deemed in law, from at least the time of Augustus, to have been reached at the age of twelve, and a girl therefore marriagable at that age (p. 38).

The third requirement for a valid marriage was the consent of the relevant parties. In classical law, these were defined as the marriage partners, if they were sui iuris or their parents, if they were subject to potestas (p. 41).

Roman family law was originally created for a society in which marriage was almost always accompanied by the entry of the wife into manus, divorce was very rare, and women had little or no control over the testamentary disposal of their property. In consequence, the law had little to say about the mother-child relationship. It was concerned rather with the child in relation to the familia to which, through the pater, it belonged. The legitimate child was in the potestas of its father, and in no circumstances could the mother have potestas over her child, legitimate or illegitimate (and, indeed, unless married with manus, she did not even belong to the same familia), nor could she adopt a child, nor even be a tutor. If married with manus, she was her child's agnate [Note CGP: relative through male descent] for inheritance purposes; otherwise, she was only a cognate [Note CGP: related by birth]. The illegitimate child took its civic status from its mother (in default of a pater), but this gave her no rights over the child. (p. 137)
[Jane F. Gardner, Women in Roman Law & Society (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1986.)]

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Titus 2:5b
5b - that the word of God may not be dishonored.

But, as we have inferred from Suetonius, Nero introduced the principle of punishing the Christians. Is the account given by Tacitus consistent with this? The answer must be affirmative. In any single trial the general principle must have been laid down that certain acts, which all Christians were regularly guilty of, were worthy of death. Even after Nero left Rome, the prefect of the city would be bound to follow the example set by the Emperor; for it would be treason to dispute or disregard it.* [Nota de rodape: *If the widely entertained opinion, that St. Paul was executed in A.D. 67 or 68, be right, we have an example of the trials which took place during Nero's absence before one of his delegates, probably the prefect of the city.] When Nero had once established the principle in Rome, his action served as a precedent in every province. There is no need to suppose a general edict or a formal law. The precedent would be quoted in every case where a Christian was accused. Charges such as had been brought against Paul in so many places were certainly brought frequently against others; and the action of the Emperor in Rome would give the tone to the action of the provincial governors. (pp. 244-245)

The advice given by St. Paul as to the relations of the Christians to the society in which they are placed, is always in accord with the situation which we have described as occupied by them under Nero. They should avoid, as far as is consistent with religion, the appearance of interfering with the present social order. The proper rule of life is to accept the world's facts, not as in themselves right, but as indifferent, and to waste no time and thought on them. Slaves must be obedient. In society Christians are to observe the courtesies of life, though these had often a religious appearance.

The most developed and pointed expressions in Paul are perhaps 1 Tim. vi. I, where slaves are counselled to "count their own masters worthy of all honour, that the name of God and the doctrine be not blasphemed," and Titus ii. 4, 5, where the young women are advised to maintain strictly the proper relations of family life, "that the word of God be not blasphemed." In both cases the position of Christians in pagan households is not merely not excluded, but is even the prominent idea. The established social order must, where possible, be respected for any vain interference with it will give rise to calumnies and accusations against the Christians who bear the name of God, and against the doctrine which they teach. (pp. 246-247)
[W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire before A.D. 170 (New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, The Knickerbocker Press, 1911).]

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